http://homepage.mac.com/liwei999/Publications_PDF/YF2.txt
2. List of Dependency Patterns
We first of all give the definition for the two very important concepts
complement and adjunct:
A dependant is an adjunct, if it can depend on any member of a given word
category. It is a complement, if it can depend only on a sub-class (including
a specific word).
(Engel, 1982)
Dependant types are defined on the principle of paradigmatic exchangeability.
We shall now give the list of basic dependant types in Contemporary Written
Chinese as follows.
In the following, PR. means that the dependant always preceeds its governor
and FL. that the dependant always folows its governor. (pred.) refers to a
Chinese predicate (verb or adjective or some other predicate) phrase with a
dependant SUB (subject). "Phrase" is used to warn that a single word in the
listed category, i.e. a terminal node, is not capable of functioning there,
and that the desired word must be a nonterminal node, i.e. head of a phrase
with one or more dependants of its own. N'/ A'/ F' etc. refers respectively
to a noun or an adjective or an adverb which, as a dependant, is a copy of
its governor, i.e. both the governor and the dependant being of the same
lexical form. Nn / Vv / Aa etc. refers respectively to a noun or a verb or an
adjective consisting of two syllables, i.e. of two Chinese characters.
2.1 Complements
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dependant name丨possible丨possible headword丨 examples
(syntactic 丨governor丨(syntagmatic 丨
function) 丨 丨 type) 丨
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1.主语 PR. 丨 V 丨 N [7] 丨中国 人民N 站V 起来 了。
(subject) 丨 丨 丨Chinese people has tood up.
SUB 丨 A 丨 D 丨我D 们 要V 建立 新 中国。
[12] 丨 丨 丨We want to establish new China.
丨 N [1] 丨 V 丨学习V 语言 重要A。
丨(phrase)丨 丨To learn languages is important.
丨的DE [1]丨 L (phrase) 丨一 个L 就 行V。One will do.
丨(phrase)丨 丨个 个(L') 高兴(A)。
丨 丨 丨Everybody is glad.
丨 丨 的DE (phrase) 丨做 工 的DE 走V 了。
丨(pred.) 丨 丨Those who work are gone.
丨 丨 S [3] 丨十S 是V 五 的 二 倍。
丨 丨 丨Ten is two times of five.
丨 丨 丨今天Nt 星期三Nt。
丨 丨 丨Today [is] Wednesday.
丨 丨 丨这 张 桌N 子 三 条 腿N。
丨 丨 丨This table [is] three-legged.
丨 丨 丨天N 漆 黑 漆 黑 的DE。
丨 丨 丨The sky [is] very very black.
丨Cb [4] 丨 Cb [4] 丨小 王N 和Cb 小 张N 是V 学生。
丨 丨 丨Wang and Zhang are students.
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2. 宾语 丨 V 丨 N [7] 丨我 爱V 祖国N。
(object) 丨 丨 丨I love motherland.
OBJ 丨 丨 D 丨妈妈 表扬V 了 他D。
[2] 丨 丨 丨Mother praised him.
[5] 丨 丨 V 丨这 孩 子 不 爱V 读V 书。
丨 丨 丨This child doesn't like reading.
丨 丨 A 丨我 要V 五 个L。
丨 丨 丨I want five.
丨 丨 的DE (phrase) 丨这 不 是Vs 我 写 的DE。
丨 丨 丨This is not what I wrote.
丨 丨 L (phrase) 丨人 不 会Vz 很 多A。
丨 丨 丨People can not [be] many.
丨 丨 S [3] 丨你 去Vz 铺V 床, 我 来Vz 扫(V) 地�
丨 丨 丨You make bed, I'll sweep floor.
丨 丨 丨花 儿 是Vs 美 的DE。
丨 丨 丨Flowers are beautiful.
丨 丨 丨我 赞成V 勇敢A。
丨Cb [4] 丨 Cb [4] 丨I approve of being brave.
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3. 间宾 FL. 丨 V 丨 N [7] 丨他 给V 学生N 二 十 本 书�
(indirect obj)丨 丨 D 丨He gave students twenty books.
OBJ2 丨 丨 丨我 送 她 一 朵 玫瑰 花。
丨 丨 Cb [4] 丨I sent a rose to her.
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4. 兼语 FL. 丨 V 丨 N 丨他 叫V 我 回答V 问题 。
(subobject) 丨 丨 丨He asked me to answer questions.
SUBOB 丨 丨 D 丨学生 们 选V 王五N 当 班 长。
丨 丨 丨Students elected Wangwu monitor.
丨 丨 的DE (phrase) 丨我 喜欢V 他D 老实。
丨 丨 丨I like him [for his] honesty.
丨 丨 L (phrase) 丨我 认为V 他D 老实。
丨 丨 丨I think him [to be] honest.
丨 丨 丨我 讨厌V 这 张 桌N 子 三 条 腿。
丨 丨 丨I dislike this table three-legged
丨Cb [4] 丨 Cb [4] 丨让V 他D 走 吧! Let him go!
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4. 兼补 FL. 丨 V 丨 V 丨老师 叫V 我 回答V 问题。
(subobject 丨 丨 丨学生 们 选V 王五 当V 班 长。
complement)丨 丨 A 丨我 喜欢V 他 老实A。
SOC 丨 丨 丨我 认为V 他 老实A。
丨 丨 N (phrase) 丨我 讨厌V 这 张 桌 子 三 条 腿N。
丨Cb [4] 丨 Cb [4] 丨让V 他 走V 吧!
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5. 介补 丨 V 丨 P (phrase) 丨他 来V 到P 我 的 家。
(prepositional丨 A 丨 丨He came to my house.
complement) 丨 丨 丨把 这 篇 翻译V 成P 英 语。
PC 丨 丨 丨Translate this into English.
丨 丨 丨她 来V 自P 广东 省。
丨 丨 丨She comes from Guangdong Province
丨 丨 丨小孩 把 点心 放V 在P 抽屉 里。
丨 丨 丨The child put pastry in drawer.
丨 丨 丨他 为P人民 服务V终身。
丨 丨 丨He served the people all his life.
丨 丨 丨杭州 以P 风景 优美 著名A。
丨 丨 丨Hangzhou is famous for scenery.
丨 丨 丨给V 敌人 以P 致命 的 打击。
丨 Cb [4] 丨 Cb [4] 丨Give the enemy a deadly blow.
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7. 介宾 FL. 丨P 丨 N 丨把P 他D 打 死 了。
(complement 丨 丨 D 丨Beat him to death.
of prep.) 丨 丨 W (phrase) 丨对P 新 的DE 老 的DE 一样 看待。
CP 丨 丨 的DE (phrase) 丨Treat the old and the new samely.
丨 丨 V (phrase) 丨
丨 丨 A (phrase) 丨他 来V 到P 我 的 家。
丨 丨 S [3] 丨把 这 篇 文章 翻译V 成P 英 语。
丨 丨 丨她 来 自P 广东 省(N)。
丨 丨 丨小孩 把 点心 放 在P 抽屉 里(W)。
丨 丨 丨他 为P 祖国N、为P人民N 服务V终身。
丨 丨 丨杭州 以P 风景 优美A 著名。
丨 丨Cb [4] 丨给 敌人 以P 致命 的 打击N。
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8. 补连 FL. 丨C 丨 V 丨虽然C 下V 雨 了, 我 并 没 停 工。
(complement 丨 丨 丨Though it rained, I didn't stop.
of conj.) 丨 丨 A 丨因为C 漂亮, 所以C 他 喜欢V 她
CC 丨 丨 丨Because pretty, [so] he liks her.
丨 丨 N (phrase) 丨他 不但C 去V 了, 而且C 赢V 了。
丨 丨 丨He not only went but also won.
丨 丨 (predicate) 丨尽管C 那 天 星期 天N,
丨Cb [4] 丨Cb [4] 丨 但C 他 却 不 在(V) 家。
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9. 补后 PR. 丨W 丨 N 丨理论N 上W theoretically
(complement 丨 丨 D 丨我D 们 中W 间W among us
of postp.) 丨 丨 W 丨下W 面W 有 人
CW 丨 丨 丨There is somebody down there.
丨 丨 的DE (phrase) 丨房 子 的DE 外W 面W outside house
丨 丨 丨拿 你D 和Cb 我D 来说W
丨 丨Cb [4] 丨as for you and me
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10. 趋补 FL. 丨V 丨 Vq 丨把 伞 带V 上Vq。
(Vq-compl.) 丨 丨 丨Take an umbrella on you.
VqC 丨 丨 丨闻V 起Vq 来Vq 很 香。
丨 丨 丨[It] smells very sweet.
丨 丨 丨他 走(V) 出(Vq) 去(Vq)。
丨 丨 丨He went out.
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11. 补的 PR. 丨的DE 丨 N 丨中国 人民N 的DE 革命
(complement 丨之ZHI 丨 丨Chinese people's revolution
of DE ) 丨 丨 D 丨我D 们 的DE 事业 our cause
CDe 丨 丨 V 丨学习V 语言 的DE 方法
丨 丨 丨the way to learn languages
丨 丨 P (phrase) 丨关于P 时 事 的DE 报告
丨 丨 丨report on current affairs
丨 丨 A 丨美丽A 的DE 姑娘
丨 丨 丨beautiful girls
丨 丨 W (phrase) 丨屋 里W 的DE 人
丨 丨 丨the men in the house
丨 丨 F (2-syllable) 丨经常F 的DE 工作, 一贯F 的DE 任务
丨 丨 丨usual work, consistent task
丨 丨 T 丨扑通(Tx) 的DE 一 声
丨 丨 丨the sound putong
丨 丨 S [3] 丨革命N 之ZHI 成 败
丨 丨 丨success or failure of revolution
丨 丨 丨美丽A 、Cb 勇敢A 的DE 中国 姑娘
丨 丨 Cb [4] 丨pretty brave Chinese girls
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12. 补地 PR. 丨地DE2 丨 A 丨认真A 地DE2 读 书
(complement 丨 丨 丨study earnestly
of DE2) 丨 丨 F (2-syllable) 丨经常F 地DE2 关心 群众。
CDe2 丨 丨 丨Care for the masses often.
丨 丨 V (phrase) 丨说V 不 出 地DE2 难受
丨 丨 丨to suffer so much that one can
丨 丨 丨 not describe it
丨 丨 N 丨应该 历史N 地DE2 看待 问题。
丨 丨 丨should treat problems historically
丨 丨T 丨扑通Tx 扑通Tx 地DE2 乱 跳
丨 丨 丨desperately jump putong putong
丨 丨 丨客观A 、Cb 公正A 地 处理 它。
丨 丨Cb [4] 丨handle it objectively and justly
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13. 补得 FL. 丨 得DE3 丨 A 丨干 得DE3 好A 。 Well done.
(complement 丨 丨 V (phrase) 丨活 得DE3 没V 意思。
of DE3) 丨 丨 丨live meaninglessly
CDe3 丨 丨 Vj; Vq 丨哭 得DE3 说V 不 出 话 来 。
丨 丨 丨cried as not to be able to speak
丨 丨 丨干 得DE3 完Vj。 can finish it
丨 丨 丨说 得DE3 出Vq 来Vq。
丨 丨 丨can speak it out
丨 丨 丨弄 得DE3 他 不 知V 如何 是 好。
丨 丨 丨he was made as not to know the way
丨 丨 很HEN 丨好 得DE3 很HEN。 Very good.
丨 丨 丨她 跳 舞 跳 得DE3 棒A 极 了。
丨 丨 丨she danced excellently
丨 丨 丨生 得DE3 伟大A, 死 得DE3 光荣A。
丨 丨 丨Live great, die glorious.
丨 丨 丨打 得DE3 稳A 、准A 、狠A。
丨 丨 Cb [4] 丨beat firmly, accurately and hard.
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14. 把补 PR. 丨 V 丨把BA; 将JIANG 丨把BA 衣服 洗V 了。
(Ba-compl.) 丨 丨 丨washed the clothes
BaC 丨 丨 丨把BA 地 扫V 干净 了。
[5] 丨 丨 丨swept the floor clean
丨 丨 丨学生 把BA 功课 做V 了。
丨 丨 丨students have done homework
丨 丨 丨将JIANG 革命 进行V 到 底。
丨 丨 丨carry out revolution to the end
丨 丨 丨把BA 桌 子、Cb把BA 椅 子 擦V干净
丨 Cb [4] 丨 Cb [4] 丨wipe the table and chairs clean
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15. 复数 FL. 丨N 丨们MEN 丨先生N 们MEN, 女士N 们MEN
(plural-compl)丨Dr 丨 丨Ladies and gentlemen.
MnC 丨 丨 丨我D 们MEN, 你D 们MEN, 他D 们MEN
丨 丨 丨 we, you and they
丨 丨 丨哥 哥N、姐 姐N 们MEN
丨 Cb [4] 丨 丨brothers and sisters
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16. 序数 PR. 丨 S 丨 第DI 丨第DI 五S the fifth
ordinal-compl.丨 丨 丨第DI 305 (S) 页 the 305th page
DiC 丨 丨 丨 page 305
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17. 名缀 FL.丨 N 丨子ZI, 头TOU, 儿ER丨桌N 子ZI, 椅N 子ZI
(noun-affix 丨 丨 丨table, chair
complement) 丨 丨 丨石N 头TOU, 木N 头TOU
NC 丨 丨 丨stone, wood
丨 丨 丨电影N 儿 film
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18. 特量 PR. 丨 N 丨 Lt 丨一 顶Lt 帽N 子 a hat
(classifier 丨 丨 丨三 辆Lt 自行 车N three bikes
complement 丨 丨 丨 他 买 了 两 块Lt 表N
for noun ) 丨 丨 丨 He bought two watches.
LCN [10] 丨 丨 丨
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19. 名量 FL.丨V 丨 Ln [7] 丨她 瞥V 了 他 两 眼Ln。
(classifier 丨 丨 丨She shot two glances at him.
complement 丨 丨 丨他 打V 了 我 一 巴掌Ln。
for verb) 丨 丨 丨He gave me a slap.
LCV [10] 丨 丨 丨
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2.2 Adjuncts
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dependant name丨possible丨possible headword丨 examples
(syntactic 丨governor丨(syntagmatic 丨
function) 丨 丨 type) 丨
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1. 状语 PR. 丨V 丨地DE2 (phrase) 丨紧张 地DE2 工作V
(adverbial) 丨A 丨 丨work intensely
AdvA [6] 丨 丨P (phrase) 丨他 在P 上海 上V 学。
丨 丨 丨He studies at Shanghai.
丨 丨W (phrase) 丨台 上W 坐V 着 主席 团。
丨 丨 丨On the platform sits presidium.
丨 丨F 丨他 仍F 很F 健康A。
丨 丨 丨He still very healthy.
丨 丨A 丨勤奋A 学习V 、 英勇A 斗争V
丨 丨 丨study diligently, struggle bravely
丨 丨Nt 丨我 1960 年Nt 出生V。
丨 丨 丨I was born in 1960.
丨 丨V (with 着 as its丨笑V 着ZHE 说V said smiling
丨 丨aspect dependant)丨走V 着ZHE 瞧V go and see
丨 丨 丨这 次Lc 完V 了。
丨 丨Lc (phrase) 丨It's coming to an end this time.
丨 丨 丨为P人民 奋斗V 终 身�
丨 Cb [4] 丨 Cb [4] 丨Struggle all life for the people
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2. 连动 FL. 丨V 丨V 丨他 推V 门 进V 来 通知V 我 们。
(verb-adjunct)丨 丨 丨He pushed door in to notify us.
VA [8] 丨 丨 丨我 吃V 饺 子 吃V'饱 了。
丨 丨 丨I ate jiaozi full.
丨 丨 丨我 有V 句 话 要Vz 说。
丨Cb [4] 丨 Cb [4] 丨I have a word to say.
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3. 补语 FL. 丨V 丨得DE3 (phrase) 丨一 句 话 逗V 得DE3 大家 乐 了。
(postmodifier)丨A 丨 丨His word made all into laughter.
PMOD [6] 丨 丨Lc (phrase) [10] 丨看V 一 下Lc, 输V 了 三 次Lc
丨 丨 丨have a look, failed three times
丨 丨Vj 丨做V 完Vj 了 作业。
丨 丨 丨have done up homework
丨 丨A 丨洗V 干净A 手
丨 丨 丨wash hands clean
丨 丨V' [10] 丨看V 看V' have a look
丨 丨V (between comma 丨她 走V 过 来, 抱V 着 孩 子
丨 丨 and 着ZHE) 丨She came over, taking baby in arms
丨 丨P 丨努力 学习V 以P 报效 祖国。
丨 丨 丨Study hard to serve motherland.
丨 丨Nt 丨吃 鸡 吃V 了 一 小时Nt �
丨 Cb [4] 丨 丨ate chicken an hour
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4. 定语 PR. 丨N 丨的DE (phrase) 丨我 的DE 祖国; 金 色 的DE 海
(attribute) 丨 丨 丨my motherland; golden sea
AtrA 丨 丨A 丨好A 人N; 聪明A 孩N 子
丨 丨 丨good man; clever child
丨 丨N [7] [12] 丨学生N 宿舍N
丨 丨 丨students' dormitory
丨 丨V 丨睡V 袍N
丨 Cb [4] 丨 Cb [4] 丨sleeping robe
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5. 限定 PR. 丨N 丨L (phrase) [10] 丨三 个L 人N three men
(Determiner) 丨 丨 [7] 丨五 斤L 西红柿N five jin of tomato
DetA 丨 丨D 丨这些D 家伙N these fellows
丨 丨 丨哪些D 人N which men
丨 丨 丨我D 们 国家N our country
丨 Cb [4] 丨 丨什么D 东西N what a thing
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6. 主题 PR. 丨V 丨N [7] 丨我D 头 痛V 。
(topic) 丨A 丨 丨I [have a] head ache.
TOP 丨 丨D 丨这 本 书N 价值 不 大A。
[12] 丨(pred.) 丨 丨This doesn't worth much.
丨 丨 L (phrase) 丨他D 心情 不 好A。
丨 丨 丨He is in low spirit.
丨 丨 的DE (phrase) 丨这 一 位L 身体 健康。
丨 丨 丨This [man] is healthy.
丨 丨 丨这 件 事N, 你 别 生气V。
丨 丨 丨[about] this, don't get angry.
丨Cb [4] 丨Cb [4] 丨读 书 的DE 心 都 飞V 了。
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7. 并动 FL. 丨V 丨V 丨他 整 天 吃V 喝V 玩V 乐V。
(coordinating丨 丨 丨He eats, drinks, plays and seeks
adjunct of V)丨 丨 丨 pleasure all day long.
VCoA [9] 丨 丨 丨
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8. 并名 FL. 丨N 丨N [7] 丨为 工N 农N 兵N 服务。
(coordinating丨 丨 丨Serve workers, peasants and
adjunct of N)丨 丨 丨 soldiers.
NCoA [9] 丨 丨 丨
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9. 并形 FL. 丨A 丨A 丨美丽A 勇敢A 的 女 兵
(coordinating丨 丨 丨Pretty and brave woman soldiers.
adjunct of A)丨 丨 丨
ACoA [9] 丨 丨 丨
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10. 外位 PR. 丨D 丨N [7] 丨农民N, 他D们 是 劳动 者。
(apposition 丨N 丨 丨Peasants, they are labourers.
adjunct) 丨(phrase 丨V (phrase) 丨把 敌人 打V 败, 这D 是 目的。
AppA 丨with Dz)丨 丨To beat enemy, this is aim.
丨 丨A (phrase) 丨她 漂亮A, 这Dz 你 不 知道 ?
丨 丨Cb [4] 丨She is pretty, this don't you know?
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11. 同位 FL. 丨Nz 丨N ( after "," or 丨我 到 过 黄山N --
(epithet) 丨N 丨 "--" or with Dz)丨 中国 著名 的 旅游 胜地(N)。
EpA 丨(phrase)丨 [7] 丨I have been to Huangshan,
丨 丨 丨 famous scenic spot in China.
丨 丨 丨我 喜欢 北京N这Dz个 美丽 的 城市。
丨 丨 丨I like Beijing this beautiful city
丨 丨 丨黄河N, 中华 民族 的 摇篮N
丨 Cb [4] 丨 Cb [4] 丨Huanghe, cradle of Chinese nation
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12. 限量 PR. 丨L 丨S 丨三S 张L 桌 子 three desks
(adjunct of 丨 丨 丨十S 条L 狗 ten dogs
classifier)丨 丨Dz 丨这Dz 杯L 水 this cup of water
LA 丨 丨 丨每Dz 个L 人 every person
丨 丨L' 丨个L 个L' 高兴。
丨 丨 丨Everybody is glad.
丨 丨 丨大约 有 七S 、Cb 八S 个L 人。
丨 丨Cb [4] 丨There are about 7 to 8 persons.
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13. 连数 FL. 丨S 丨S 丨五S 百S 三S 十S 二S (=532)
(S-adjunct) 丨 丨 丨二S 点S 六 (=2.6)
SA 丨 丨 丨三S 又S 五S 分之S 三S
丨 丨 丨百S 分之S 五S 点S 六S (=5.6%)
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14. 时体 FL. 丨V 丨着ZHE,了LE, 过GUO丨他 在 打V 着ZHE 球 呢。
(aspect) 丨 丨 丨He is now playing ball.
AspA 丨 丨 丨下V 了LE 雨 了。
丨 丨 丨It has rained.
丨 丨 丨看V 过GUO 这 场 电影 吗?
丨 Cb [4] 丨 丨Have [you] seen this film?
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15. 状句 PR. 丨V 丨 F 丨总之F, 成绩 很 大A。
circumstantial丨A 丨 丨In a word, achievement is great.
CirA [11] 丨N 丨 V (phrase) 丨一般 地 说V 来, 不 错。
丨(phrase)丨 丨generally speaking, not bad.
丨 丨 W (phrase) 丨事实 上W, 他 就 在V 上海。
丨(pred.) 丨 丨In fact, he was just in Shanghai.
丨 丨 P (phrase) 丨关于P 这 件 事, 你 别 生气V。
丨 丨 [12] 丨On this matter, don't get angry.
丨 丨 丨啊T, 多 美A 呀!
丨 丨 T 丨Aha, how beautiful!
丨 丨 丨哎哟T, 我 疼 死 了。
丨 Cb [4] 丨 Cb [4] 丨Ouch, I am aching to death.
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16. 语气 FL. 丨V 丨 Zyq 丨下V 雨 了LE 吗ME?
(Zyq-adjunct)丨A 丨吗ME, 呢NE 丨Is it raining already?
ZyqA 丨N 丨吧BA, 了LE 丨下V 着 雨 呢NE。
丨(phrase)丨啊A, 呀YA 丨It is now just raining.
丨 丨哪NA, 哇WA 丨明天 五 一 节N 吗ME?
丨(pred.) 丨 丨[Is] tomorrow May Day?
丨 丨 丨咱 们 走V 吧BA!
丨 丨 丨Let's go!
丨 丨 丨谁 大A 呢NE?
丨 丨 丨Who [is] older?
丨 丨 丨你 去V 呢NE, 还是 留V 呢NE?
丨 丨 丨Are you leaving or staying?
丨 丨 丨多么 壮观A 哪NA !
丨 丨 丨How magnificent!
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17. 被动 PR. 丨V 丨被BEI 给GEI 丨他 被BEI 狠狠 打V 了 一 顿。
(passive) 丨 丨由YOU 让RANG 丨He was beaten very hard.
BeiA 丨 丨 丨他 给GEI 人 打 了。
丨 Cb [4] 丨 丨He was beaten by somebody.
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[1] It is only limited to the so-called nominal predicate. There are two kinds
of such sentences: 1) noun predicate sentence; 2) DE-predicate (的) sentence.
DE-phrase, often translated into English as what-clause (e.g. 他TA (he) 看KAN
(see) 的DE --> what he saw; 使SHI (make) 我WO (me) 高兴GAOXING (glad) 的DE -->
what made me glad), is essentially also a noun phrase with its governor
omitted. The prerequisites for the nominal predicate are: 1) the noun or DE
must first form a phrase before it can function as predicate; 2) there are no
other possible candidate verbs or adjectives in the position of predicate
of the sentence or clause; 3) there should be a noun or pronoun (subject) just
before it. Such nominal predicate sentences are mainly used to express one's
age, origin, facial appearance or identity. Most of the nominal predicates can
be turned into linking-verbal predicate with the insertion of the linking verb
是SHI (be). Therefore we have two ways to draw syntactic trees, taking the
sentence 这 (this) 张 (?) 桌 (table) 子 (?) 三 (three) 条 (?) 腿 (leg) (This
table is three-legged) as an example:
(1) 腿TUI (2) *
TOP / \ LCN TOP / \ OBJ
桌ZHUO 条TIAO 桌ZHUO 腿TUI
LCN / \ NC \ LA LCN / \ NC \ LCN
张ZHANG 子ZI 三SAN 张ZHANG 子ZI 条TIAO
LA / LA / \ LA
这ZHE 这ZHE 三SAN
The null-node * is introduced to represent the omitted linking verb axis in
Tree (2). We now, for the time being, adopt the first way.
[2] Chinese object in most cases follows its governor, but there are some
occasions where object is placed before the verb. In Chinese passive
structure, i.e. when the verb has got a passive preposition or particle as
adjunct (BeiA), the object is bound to precede the verb. There is also a
kind of implicit passive sentences with the object before the verb, for
instance, 鸡JI (chicken) 吃CHI (eat) 了LE 。But since we find both V0 and V1
under the entry CHI in the lexicon, the sentence is ambiguous, hence the 2
possible analyses:
(1) 吃CHI (2) 吃CHI
SUB / \ AspA OBJ / \ AspA
鸡JI 了LE 鸡JI 了LE
We'll have to take background analysisis to disambiguate it. (For further
discussion on word order concerning object, see 5.4.3 subjects and objects.)
[3] Numeral when used as subject, object, complement of preposition or
complement of DE can only occur in mathematical patterns like 加 (add/plus),
减 (subtract/minus), 乘 (multiply/times), 除 (divide) and 等于(是) (be equal
to/be)" e.g.
(1) 三 (three) 十 (ten) 是 (is) 五 (five) 的 ('s) 六 (six) 倍 (times)
Thirty is six times of five.
(2) 五 (five) 乘 (multiply) 以 (by) 六 (six) 等于 (equal) 三 (three) 十 (ten)
Five multiplied by six is equal to thirty.
(1) 是SHI (2) 等DENG
SUB / \ OBJ SUB / \ OBJ
十SHI 倍BEI 乘CHENG 于YU
SA / AtrA / \ DetA SUB / \ PC \ CP
三SAN 的DE 六LIU 五WU 以YI 十SHI
CDe / \ CP \ SA
五WU 六LIU 三SAN
Therefore, the numeral subject in the English sentence "One is enough" must be
translated as a classifier phrase "一YI 个GE" in Chinese instead of a bare
numeral "一YI", hence the correct translation: "一YI 个GE 够GO 了LE".
[4] Only the coordinating conjunction whose coordinated phrases are the
required dependants listed in the column can function there.
[5] There is sort of transformation between object and Ba-complement:
V + (X) + OBJ --> Ba-complement (BA + N) + V + (X) (X is some other dependant
of the same verb, which is usually a prerequisite for such surface-to-surface
transformation). For example, the sentence "I HAVE READ THE BOOK":
我 看 完 了 书 。 --> 我 把 书 看 完 了 。
V X1 X2 N (OBJ) --> Pba (BaC) N V X1 X2
看KAN 看KAN
SUB / \ PMOD \ AspA \ OBJ SUB / BaC / \ PMOD \ AspA
我WO 完WAN 了LE 书SHU 我WO 把BA 完WAN 了LE
\ CP
书SHU
[6] The difference between adverbial (AdvA) and post modifier (PMOD) in
Chinese is worth studying. They both are governed by a verb or an
adjective as its adjunct, but AdvA is always preceding its governor while
PMOD forever following it, hence the naming of post modifier. PMOD is mainly
used to denote a result or the times of an action. One should be careful to
make a proper decision whether to translate an adverbial in English into a
Chinese adverbial or a Chinese post modifier, e.g.
1) He studies hard (AdvA). --> 他TA 学习XUEXI 努力NULI (PMOD) 。
2) Study hard (AdvA), please. --> 请QING 努力NULI (AdvA) 学习XUEXI 。
[7] In the structure N1 + N2, there are at least 4 possible relations in
between, i.e.
1) N2 2) N2 3) N1 4) N1
AtrA / DetA / (N1 here is EpA / NCoA /
N1 N1/Ln used as Ln) N2 N2
Relation (1) is the default value for N1 + N2, while the others have their
respective context constraints. For (2), it must appear in S + N1 + N2 ( -->
S + Ln + N), with the category of the word N1 in this case being dynamically
changed into noun classifier (Ln). (3) appears in the structure N1 + "," + N2
or N1 + "--" + N2, or in the case that N2 is a phrase with its dependant to be
the words "这ZHE" (this/these) or "那NA" (that/those). As for (5), N1 and N2
should both be one-character (occasionally two-character) words.
Besides, in the pattern N1 + N2 + V/A, N1 may function as topic (TOP) for the
predicate V/A, while N2 is the subject of V/A (see [12]), it may also be that
N1 serves as the object and N2 as the subject of V; and in the pattern V + N1
+ N2, N1 may be used as indirect object (OBJ2) of V while N2 the direct object
(OBJ).
[8] It is in the circle of Chinese grammar called multiverb pattern: V + VA +
VA + ..., which is usually used to indicate a series of actions in succession.
[9] Chinese asyndetic coordination results from the omission of DUNHAO "、"
in a coordinated parallel words group through frequent co-appearance of the
words. Each coordinated element most often consists of only one character,
occasionally of two characters, and never of more than two -- in that case
one should not omit the "、". On any occasion, the number of characters in
each coordinated element must be same, i.e. they are all made up either of
one or of two characters, owing to the effect of the number of character(s),
or syllable(s), on structure (see 0.1.3). In fact, the coordinated elements
in an asyndetic coordination must be parallel both phonetically and
semantically, i.e. they should be same-syllabled and semantically belong to a
same subset, for example, the elements all refer to the subset of profession
as in "工(worker) 农(peasant) 兵(soldier), or all are actions as in "吃(eat)
喝(drink) 玩(play) 乐(seek pleasure)". Thanks to the paralell rule, the multi-
meanings for a character as a coordinated element are easily differentiated
out by the language user, e.g. LE in the above structure can only mean "to
seek pleasure" although it has various other meanings as "glad", "laugh", etc.
It is just because of this paralell feature in coordinated structure that many
characters which by themselves can hardly be independently used as words in
Contemporary Chinese -- morphemes as they are usually called -- can well
function as elements in coordinated structure, for in other structures they
are too ambiguous to be regarded as words and therefore they must first
combine with other characters (morphemes) to form words before they are used
as a governor and/or dependant in a sentence. Some often used such coordinated
structures are gradually seen as idioms today.
In the case of Chinese asyndetic coordination, we now have a principle set up
that the first element should always govern the other coordinated elements
whose dependant types are named XCoA, X indicating the word category of the
dependants, e.g.
1) 工N 农N 兵N 是V 主人N 。
GONG NONG BING SHI ZHUREN
worker peasant soldier are master
是SHI
SUB / \ OBJ
工GONG 主人ZHUREN
NCoA / \ NCoA
农NONG 兵BING
2) 他D 整A 天Nt 吃V 喝V 玩V 乐V 。
TA ZHENG TIAN CHI HE WAN LE
he all day eat drink play seek-pleasure
吃CHI
SUB / AdvA / \ VCoA \ VCoA \ VCoA
他TA 天TIAN 喝HE 玩WAN 乐LE
AtrA /
整ZHENG
3) 打V 得Z 稳A 准A 狠A 。
DA DE WEN ZHUN HEN
beat so-that firm accurate hard
beat firmly, accurately and hard
打DA
PMOD /
得DE3
CDe3 /
稳WEN
ACoA / \ ACoA
准ZHUN 狠HEN
[10] The division of dependant types into complements and adjuncts leads to
some pairs of parallel constituents, which play the similar role in syntax
and therefore can never co-exist, e.g. post modifier (PMOD) and classifier
complement for verb (LCV); Derterminer (DetA) in the form of classifier
phrase and classifier complement for noun (LCN). Both PMOD and LCV follow
their governor verb, their difference lies in that the former is oriented to
all verbs, taking the form of classifier-for-action Lc or the verb-copy V'
while the latter must be the noun-classifier in the valency of the verb
governor. Similarly, the difference between the preceding dependant LCN and
L-phrase as DetA lies in that the former is a valency of the governor noun
described under its entry in lexicon while the latter is but an adjunct. The
all-powerful classifer 个GE can precede almost any noun with the least
rhetoric colour and is therefore always used as DetA. Another abstract
classifier 种ZHONG often, though not always, functions as DetA. All the unit
classifiers, noun classifiers and classifiers for action are used only as
DetA.
Complement Adjunct
1) 看KAN 一YI 眼YAN (LCV) 看KAN 一YI 看KAN (PMOD)
look an eye (have a look) look a look (have a look)
看KAN 一YI 下XIA (PMOD)
look a moment (have a glance)
看KAN 一YI 次CI (PMOD)
look a time (look once)
2) 三SAN 位WEI (LCN) 老LAO 同志TONGZHI; 三SAN 个GE (DetA) 同志TONGZHI
three (?) old comrades three (?) comrades
五WU 匹PI (LCN) 布BU; 五WU 米MI (DetA) 布BU
five bolts of cloth; five metres of cloth
一YI 杆GAN (LCN) 笔BI; 一YI 盒HE (DetA) 笔BI
a (?) pen a box of pens
这ZHE 场CHANG (LCN) 事故SHIGU; 这 次CI (DetA) 事故
this (?) accident this time accident
这 个GE (DetA) 事故
this (?) accident
[11] Circumstancial adjunct always appears at the beginning of a sentence or
clause with a "," immediately following it.
[12] The difference between topic (TOP) and subject (SUB) lies in that
subject is much more closely related to the predicate verb, hence the obvious
co-occurence of two (although it is not very unusual in Chinese to omit
subject when it can be made out in context), while topic, more like a
circumstancial adjunct (CirA) or an attribute (AtrA) in function, is by no
means compulsory. If we have some point in categorizing subject as a
complement, we surely can hardly do the same with topic. Topic always stands
before subject plus predicate. If the subject happens to be omitted, topic
takes the role of subject -- it only concerns the change of syntactic
roles, with the semantic role always the same. Compare:
1) 父亲FUQIN (father) 身体SHENTI (body) 很HEN (very) 健康JIANKANG (healthy);
父亲FUQIN 很HEN 健康JIANKANG;
父亲FUQIN 的DE ('s) 身体SHENTI 很HEN (very) 健康JIANKANG 。
Father [is] very healthy.
健康JIANKANG 健康 健康
TOP / SUB / \ AdvA SUB / \ AdvA SUB / \ AdvA
父亲FUQIN 身体SHENTI 很HEN 父亲FUQIN 很HEN 身体SHENTI 很HEN
AtrA /
的DE
CDe /
父亲FUQIN
2) 这ZHE (this) 件JIAN 事SHI (thing) 你NI (you) 别BIE (don't) 生气SHENGQI 。
关于GUANYU (about) 这ZHE 件JIAN 事SHI, 你NI 别BIE 生气SHENGQI (angry) 。
On this matter, don't get angry.
生气 生气SHENGQI
TOP / SUB / \ AdvA CirA / SUB / \ AdvA
事SHI 你NI 别BIE 关于GUANYU 你NI 别BIE
LCN / \ CP
件JIAN 事SHI
LA / LCN /
这ZHE 件JIAN
LA /
这ZHE
Another typical example for syntactic role change is the change from indirect
object to direct when the direct object is omitted, e.g. 他TA (he) 给GEI
(give) 我WO (me: indirect) 一YI (one) 本BEN (?) 书SHU (book: direct) --> 他TA
给GEI 我WO (direct) 了LE. Such a change only concerns transformation in
surface structure. Syntactic roles are determined by formal analysis to
represent a sentence's surface structure while semantic roles are made out
by syntactic/semantic analyses to represent deep structure which is considered common to all the languages. There is no simple correspondence between syntactic roles and the semantic ones. We'll not go into details in this formal syntax
model on semantics.
Topic is to be differentiated form preceding object whose axis is V1:
地DI (floor: OBJ) 我WO (I) 扫SAO (V1: sweep) 了LE;
I swept the floor.
鸡JI (chicken: OBJ) 他TA (he) 吃CHI (V1: eat) 了LE
He ate the chicken.
他TA (he: TOP) 学习XUEXI (study) 进步JINBU (V0: progress) 快KUAI (fast) .
His study makes fast progress. / He makes fast progress in study.
( to be continued in the next file YF3.txt )